New York Law Review

Tag: Warrantless Search

  • People v. Spinelli, 42 N.Y.2d 87 (1977): Warrantless Search Permissible Where No Expectation of Privacy and Exigent Circumstances Exist

    People v. Spinelli, 42 N.Y.2d 87 (1977)

    A warrantless search is permissible if conducted in an area where the defendant has no reasonable expectation of privacy, and exigent circumstances exist.

    Summary

    The New York Court of Appeals held that a tax investigator’s observation of the defendant’s activities on their driveway, coupled with information from his supervisor, established probable cause for him to be there. The court further held that the defendants did not have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their driveway given their overt activities. Additionally, the presence of vehicles capable of quickly removing a large quantity of illegal cigarettes created exigent circumstances justifying a warrantless search and seizure of the garage’s contents.

    Facts

    A tax investigator, acting on information partly provided by his supervisor, entered the defendants’ driveway and observed their activities. The activities were overt. The defendants possessed a large stock of untaxed cigarettes stored in a garage and had vehicles readily available for the rapid removal of these cigarettes.

    Procedural History

    The suppression court ruled against suppressing the evidence found in the garage. The Appellate Division affirmed the lower court’s ruling. The New York Court of Appeals then reviewed the case.

    Issue(s)

    1. Whether the tax investigator had probable cause to enter the defendant’s driveway.
    2. Whether the defendants had a reasonable expectation of privacy in their driveway.
    3. Whether exigent circumstances existed that justified a warrantless search and seizure of the contents of the garage.

    Holding

    1. Yes, because the tax investigator’s testimony, combined with information from his supervisor, furnished the requisite probable cause.
    2. No, because the defendants’ activities were carried on in such an overt manner that they had no logical expectation of privacy in their driveway.
    3. Yes, because the truck and other vehicles available to the defendants presented exigent circumstances, making the search and seizure of the garage’s contents permissible without a warrant.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The court reasoned that the investigator had probable cause based on his observations combined with information from his supervisor. The court acknowledged that while a private driveway is generally protected against unreasonable search and seizure, the defendants’ overt activities negated any reasonable expectation of privacy in this case. The court relied on precedent establishing that what a person knowingly exposes to the public, even in their own home or office, is not subject to Fourth Amendment protection. Moreover, the court determined that exigent circumstances existed because the defendants possessed vehicles capable of quickly removing the large stock of illegal cigarettes, potentially thwarting any attempt to obtain a warrant in time to prevent the removal of the evidence. As such, a warrantless search and seizure was justified. The court cited People v. Vaccaro, 39 N.Y.2d 468, 472-473, and People v. Clements, 37 N.Y.2d 675, 679, cert den 425 U.S. 911, in support of this conclusion. The court found that the investigator, in positioning himself on the driveway, had not invaded an area as to which the defendants had a logical expectation of privacy. “Furthermore, though a private driveway leading to a home is not outside the area entitled to protection against unreasonable search and seizure…the record in this case reveals that the driveway here was one in which the defendants’ activities were carried on in such an overt manner that the suppression court had a right to find that the investigator, in positioning himself there, had not invaded an area as to which defendants had a logical expectation of privacy.”

  • People v. Belton, 357 N.Y.S.2d 448 (1974): Warrantless Search Justified by Exigent Circumstances

    People v. Belton, 357 N.Y.S.2d 448 (1974)

    A warrantless search and seizure on private property is permissible under the Fourth Amendment when exigent circumstances, such as an imminent threat to public safety, exist.

    Summary

    The defendant, president of the Breed motorcycle gang, appealed a conviction for weapons possession, arguing that the evidence (handguns) was obtained through an illegal search. Police, acting on tips about a gang war and armed gang members, observed Belton hide a package behind a garage near the gang’s clubhouse. Without a warrant, they searched the area, found the package containing handguns, and later arrested Belton. The New York Court of Appeals upheld the conviction, finding that exigent circumstances—the imminent threat of gang violence—justified the warrantless search. The court reasoned that the need to protect public safety outweighed Belton’s expectation of privacy in the concealed package.

    Facts

    On March 8, 1971, police received a teletype about a feud between the Hells Angels and Breed motorcycle gangs, indicating both groups were armed and headed to Nassau County.
    Four days later, another teletype from Suffolk County confirmed the gangs were armed with bombs and dynamite and planning a feud.
    On April 10, 1971, around 12:30 a.m., police stopped Breed gang members en route to their Nassau County clubhouse, finding dynamite and sawed-off shotguns in their car.
    Police then staked out the Breed clubhouse at 18 Gilbert Avenue, Roosevelt.
    Around 3:15 a.m., an officer observed cars with out-of-state licenses and people in Breed regalia entering and exiting the clubhouse. Individuals leaving the building were being arrested and found to be armed based on information the officer provided.
    At 4:30 a.m., the officer saw defendant Belton leave a group, carry a package to the rear of a detached garage near the clubhouse, bend down, and then walk away without the package.
    The officer maintained surveillance of the spot for 15-20 minutes before moving in.
    He found the package, which contained three handguns, two loaded, a canister of a parsley-like substance and “Seconal” pills.
    Belton was arrested at his residence about an hour and a half later for possessing the guns, and a blackjack was found in plain view during the arrest.

    Procedural History

    Belton was convicted of possession of a weapon as a misdemeanor based on the blackjack found during his arrest.
    He challenged the legality of the search and seizure that produced the handguns, arguing that his arrest for the blackjack possession was unlawful because it stemmed from the initial illegal search.
    The trial court denied his motion to suppress the evidence.
    The Appellate Division affirmed the judgment of conviction.
    Belton appealed to the New York Court of Appeals.

    Issue(s)

    Whether the warrantless search and seizure of the package behind the garage violated Belton’s Fourth Amendment right against unreasonable searches and seizures, rendering the evidence inadmissible.

    Holding

    No, because exigent circumstances, specifically the imminent threat of gang violence, justified the warrantless search and seizure.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The court stated that the Fourth Amendment prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures, but not all searches and seizures are forbidden. Reasonableness typically requires a warrant, but exceptions exist. This case fell under the exigent circumstances exception.
    The searching officer had information about an impending gang war, the presence of armed gang members at the clubhouse, and the confiscation of weapons from individuals connected to the gang. The officer observed Belton secreting a package behind the garage.
    “In that setting the officer, charged with responsibility for protecting the public safety which might well be threatened by the activities of which he had been informed and which he had observed, was justified—indeed obliged—to move rapidly and decisively to ward off foreseeable imminent violence with attendant risk of a serious breach of the peace and possible injury to innocent members of the public.”
    The officer reasonably concluded the package contained weapons or explosives, and delaying to obtain a warrant would have exposed the public and police to unnecessary risk. The court emphasized that “what the Constitution forbids is not all searches and seizures, but unreasonable searches and seizures”. Elkins v United States, 364 US 206, 222. The court acknowledged the area behind the garage was private property and Belton demonstrated an expectation of privacy by covering the package. However, this expectation was weighed against the justification for the search – preserving public safety.
    The intrusion on privacy was limited, as it didn’t extend into any building. The justification for the search was “more than adequate,” given the potential danger to the public. The court found the officer acted reasonably in seizing the secreted package to prevent foreseeable violence. Therefore, the court upheld the conviction.

  • People v. Prochilo, 41 N.Y.2d 247 (1976): Warrantless Searches Based on Informant Tips and Corroboration

    People v. Prochilo, 41 N.Y.2d 247 (1976)

    Whether reasonable cause exists to conduct a warrantless search and seizure is a factual determination beyond the scope of appellate review unless the determination is erroneous as a matter of law.

    Summary

    This case concerns the legality of a warrantless search based on information from informants and police corroboration. The Court of Appeals affirmed the lower court’s decision, holding that the search was justified by reasonable cause. The court emphasized that determinations of reasonable cause are factual and generally beyond appellate review unless an error of law is evident. The ruling underscores the importance of informant reliability, police corroboration, and the scope of the search in assessing the validity of a warrantless search.

    Facts

    Undercover police officers received information from two informants that the defendant, a bartender, was storing cocaine in the kitchen refrigerator of the bar where he worked. The informants also indicated the defendant had sold the drug to a patron. Based on this information, the officers visually observed the defendant. The officers then searched the refrigerator in the defendant’s presence without informing him of his constitutional rights or arresting him until after the search. The search revealed cocaine.

    Procedural History

    The defendant sought to suppress the evidence obtained during the search. The lower court denied the motion to suppress. The Appellate Division affirmed that decision. The case then went to the New York Court of Appeals.

    Issue(s)

    1. Whether the warrantless search of the refrigerator was supported by reasonable cause.
    2. Whether the testimony of the police officers was so inconsistent as to be deemed incredible as a matter of law.

    Holding

    1. Yes, because the information provided by the informants was corroborated by the officers’ visual observations, giving rise to reasonable cause for the search.
    2. No, because the alleged discrepancies in the officers’ testimony were insignificant and did not undermine the fundamental factual issues.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The Court of Appeals emphasized that the determination of reasonable cause for a warrantless search is a factual one, and the court’s power of review is limited unless an error of law is evident. The court found no such error, noting that the officers’ testimony, based on information from informants and corroborated by their own observations, provided a sufficient basis for the lower courts to find that the search was justified. The court quoted People v. Clements, 37 NY2d 675, 680, stating that the search was not a “wide-ranging, exploratory, rummaging, or routine search of the character condemned in Chimel v. California“. The court rejected the argument that the officers’ testimony was incredible, stating that credibility is a factual issue generally outside the scope of their review. The court reasoned that the alleged inconsistencies in the officers’ testimony were insignificant. As stated in People v Alexander, 37 NY2d 202, 204, credibility is a factual issue which is not generally within the competence of appellate review.

  • People v. Belton, 55 A.D.2d 694 (N.Y. App. Div. 1976): Automobile Exception to Warrant Requirement After High-Speed Chase

    55 A.D.2d 694 (N.Y. App. Div. 1976)

    A warrantless search of an automobile is permissible under the Fourth Amendment if there is probable cause to believe the vehicle contains contraband, especially when coupled with a high-speed flight from police.

    Summary

    The defendant was convicted of attempted possession of marijuana after police searched his car and found a large quantity of the drug. The search occurred after police observed a passenger with what appeared to be a marijuana cigarette and the defendant subsequently led police on a high-speed chase. The Appellate Division reversed the conviction, suppressing the evidence. This court reversed, holding that the observation of the marijuana cigarette, coupled with the high-speed flight, provided probable cause for the search under the automobile exception to the warrant requirement. The court emphasized that the mobility of vehicles and the lesser expectation of privacy justify warrantless searches when probable cause exists.

    Facts

    Two plainclothes officers observed the defendant’s car at a traffic light. The passenger was seen holding what appeared to be a marijuana cigarette. When an officer approached the car and identified himself, the defendant accelerated rapidly, leading the police on a high-speed chase through city streets. After being stopped, the passenger fled, and the defendant was arrested. An officer searched the car, found the registration in the glove compartment, and then opened the trunk where he discovered a large duffel bag containing approximately 50 pounds of marijuana.

    Procedural History

    The defendant pleaded guilty to attempted possession of a dangerous drug after his motion to suppress the marijuana was denied. The Appellate Division reversed, suppressing the evidence. The People appealed to this court.

    Issue(s)

    Whether the warrantless search of the defendant’s automobile was reasonable under the Fourth Amendment given the observation of a marijuana cigarette and the subsequent high-speed chase.

    Holding

    Yes, because the observation of what appeared to be a marijuana cigarette, coupled with the defendant’s flight from the police, established probable cause to believe the vehicle contained contraband, justifying a warrantless search under the automobile exception.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The court reasoned that the Fourth Amendment prohibits only unreasonable searches and seizures. The ultimate standard is reasonableness, which depends on the facts and circumstances of each case. While warrantless searches are generally unreasonable, the automobile exception, originating in Carroll v. United States, allows for the warrantless search of a vehicle if there is probable cause to believe it contains contraband. The court distinguished this case from Coolidge v. New Hampshire, noting that the initial confrontation occurred on a public highway. The court also considered the defendant’s flight, stating that while flight alone is of slight value in determining guilt at trial, it is an important factor reinforcing a belief that a vehicle contains additional contraband. The court stated: “True, it has been said that flight, as evidencing consciousness of guilt, is of ‘slight value, and of none whatever unless there are facts pointing to the motive which prompted it’… Instead, the standard is probable cause, that is, whether all the facts and circumstances would lead a prudent police officer to believe that the vehicle contained contraband”. Finally, the court emphasized that one has a lesser expectation of privacy in an automobile than in one’s home and that, since the police could have searched the vehicle at the station house, the immediate search on the scene was not invalid. The court concluded that requiring the police to take the vehicle to the station house would be impractical and offer no additional protection to the defendant. Therefore, the search was reasonable under the Fourth Amendment.

  • People v. Clements, 37 N.Y.2d 675 (1975): Warrantless Search Permissible Under Exigent Circumstances with Reliable Information

    People v. Clements, 37 N.Y.2d 675 (1975)

    A warrantless search is permissible when exigent circumstances exist, such as the imminent destruction of contraband, and the police have specific, reliable information about the location of the contraband.

    Summary

    Police arrested Clements and Metzger in their apartment based on information from a reliable informant who had just purchased marijuana there. After the arrests, the police searched a dresser and found additional marijuana. The New York Court of Appeals held that the warrantless search of the dresser was justified due to exigent circumstances (the risk of the drugs being destroyed) coupled with the detailed information provided by the informant. The court emphasized that the search was narrowly focused and not a general exploratory search.

    Facts

    A named informant told police he knew where large quantities of marijuana could be purchased. The informant agreed to buy marijuana for the police, who searched him and provided him with marked money. The informant went to Clements and Metzger’s apartment and returned with marijuana cigarettes, stating he became nervous due to questioning by the sellers and left when they left the room. Police went to the apartment and arrested Clements. Marijuana and drug paraphernalia were in plain view. Metzger was arrested in the bathroom. Police then searched a dresser described by the informant and found 16 bricks of marijuana in the bottom drawer.

    Procedural History

    Clements and Metzger moved to suppress the evidence found in the dresser, but the motions were denied by the trial court. They then pleaded guilty. The Appellate Division reversed, granting the motions to suppress as to the marijuana found in the dresser drawers. The People appealed to the New York Court of Appeals.

    Issue(s)

    Whether the warrantless seizure of marijuana from a closed dresser drawer in an apartment was illegal, where police had legally entered the apartment and had precise, reliable information about the marijuana’s location.

    Holding

    No, because the seizure was lawful under an exigency exception to the warrant requirement. The police had probable cause and faced exigent circumstances that justified an immediate search to prevent the destruction or removal of the evidence.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The Court reasoned that the warrantless search was justified by two key factors: exigent circumstances and a specifically focused search based on reliable information. The exigent circumstances included the readily disposable nature of narcotics and the informant’s belief that the sellers were suspicious. The police had specific information from a credible informant about the location and contents of the dresser drawer. The Court distinguished this case from Chimel v. California, noting that this was not a wide-ranging exploratory search. The Court stated, “Crucial then to the legality of the warrantless seizure here is the coexistence of two factors, each significant for itself and more significant in combination. The first is the existence of what are referred to as exigent or exceptional circumstances… The second is the fact that this seizure was specifically focused on a predetermined target, the predetermination of which was based on explicit information furnished by a known and still available individual whose reliability the police had currently substantiated… Most significant the seizure was conducted to prevent the threatened disappearance of tangible evidence.” The Court considered potential alternative actions the police could have taken, such as maintaining surveillance while obtaining a warrant, but concluded that those alternatives would have been more intrusive. The Court found the police acted reasonably given the need for immediate action and the specific knowledge they possessed. The court distinguished from cases where the initial intrusion was unlawful, noting that here, the entry into the apartment was lawful based on probable cause for the arrests. The court remitted to the Appellate Division for review of the facts.

  • People v. Belton, 50 N.Y.2d 447 (1980): Search Incident to Arrest Must Be Contemporaneous and Proximate

    People v. Belton, 50 N.Y.2d 447 (1980)

    A search incident to a lawful arrest must be contemporaneous with the arrest and confined to the immediate vicinity of the arrestee.

    Summary

    Defendant Belton was arrested just outside his apartment. Police, without a warrant, searched his apartment, ostensibly for a stolen television. The television was not found. However, they found an imitation pistol in plain view in a partially open dresser drawer in the bedroom. The New York Court of Appeals held that the search was illegal because it was not conducted pursuant to a warrant, was not incidental to the arrest (which occurred outside the apartment), and was not conducted with Belton’s consent. The court reversed the Appellate Division’s order, vacated the guilty plea and conviction, and granted the motion to suppress the physical evidence.

    Facts

    Defendant was arrested and handcuffed either in the hallway adjoining his apartment door or immediately inside the doorway in the foyer.

    Without obtaining a warrant, police searched the defendant’s living room and bedroom, purportedly seeking a stolen television set.

    The stolen television was not found during the search.

    Police found an imitation pistol in plain view inside a partially open dresser drawer located in the bedroom.

    Procedural History

    The defendant was convicted based on evidence found during a warrantless search of his apartment.

    The Appellate Division affirmed the conviction.

    The New York Court of Appeals granted leave to appeal.

    Issue(s)

    Whether physical evidence seized from an apartment during a warrantless search should be suppressed when the search was not conducted pursuant to a valid warrant, was not incidental to a lawful arrest, and was not conducted with the defendant’s consent.

    Holding

    Yes, because the search was not conducted pursuant to a valid warrant, was not incidental to the completed arrest outside the searched premises, and was not conducted with the defendant’s consent.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The court reasoned that the warrantless search violated the defendant’s Fourth Amendment rights. The court emphasized the well-established exceptions to the warrant requirement, which include searches conducted pursuant to a valid warrant, searches incident to a lawful arrest, and searches conducted with consent. The court found that none of these exceptions applied in this case.

    The court cited Agnello v. United States, 269 U.S. 20, 33, for the proposition that warrantless searches are per se unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment, subject only to a few specifically established and well-delineated exceptions.

    The court also cited Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 763, which limited the scope of a search incident to arrest to the area within the immediate control of the arrestee.

    The court distinguished the present case from People v. Loria, 10 N.Y.2d 368, 373-374, without elaborating on the distinctions, but generally Loria involved consent, which was not present here.

    Because the arrest occurred outside the apartment and the search was not contemporaneous with the arrest, the search could not be justified as incident to a lawful arrest. Moreover, since there was no warrant and no consent, the search was illegal, and the evidence seized should have been suppressed.

  • People v. Lypka, 36 N.Y.2d 210 (1975): Probable Cause Based on Interstate Police Bulletins

    People v. Lypka, 36 N.Y.2d 210 (1975)

    An interstate police bulletin can provide probable cause for a warrantless search, but the prosecution must demonstrate that the sending agency possessed the requisite probable cause to act when the search is challenged in a suppression hearing.

    Summary

    Defendants were convicted of weapon possession and criminal trespass after a warrantless search of their vehicles. The search was based on an interstate police bulletin detailing weapons and stolen motorcycles believed to be in their possession. The New York Court of Appeals held that while a police officer can rely on a bulletin or alert from another officer or department, the prosecution must demonstrate that the sending agency had probable cause to issue the bulletin when a motion to suppress is made. Because the prosecution failed to establish the Pennsylvania authorities’ basis for the information, the case was remitted for a new suppression hearing.

    Facts

    Undersheriff Brewer of Seneca County received a call from Detective Holhman of the Lancaster, Pennsylvania Police Department, stating that the defendants were en route from Lancaster to Interlaken, NY, with specified weapons and stolen motorcycles. The detective provided detailed descriptions of the vehicles. A teletype message containing the same information was sent to the State Police Headquarters in Albany. Deputies and State Troopers converged on the Lypka residence without arrest or search warrants. The defendants purportedly consented to a search of their vehicles, which revealed contraband and weapons.

    Procedural History

    The County Court denied the defendant’s motion to suppress the evidence, finding the defendants had consented to the search. The Appellate Division affirmed, finding probable cause and applying the automobile exception to the warrant requirement. One justice dissented, arguing for the necessity of a warrant. The New York Court of Appeals withheld determination of the appeal and remitted the case to the County Court for further proceedings on the motion to suppress.

    Issue(s)

    Whether an interstate police bulletin alone can furnish probable cause for a warrantless motor vehicle search, such that evidence found during that search is admissible.

    Holding

    No, not without further substantiation. The determination of the appeal was withheld and the case remitted to the County Court because the prosecution failed to demonstrate that the Pennsylvania authorities possessed the necessary probable cause to support a search for weapons and stolen property.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The court acknowledged that a police officer is entitled to act on the strength of a police bulletin or alert from another officer or department, and to assume its reliability, citing Whiteley v. Warden, 401 U. S. 560, 568. The court noted that “where the bulletin or alert, prima facie, furnishes probable cause, a reasonable search is permissible. In such circumstances the sender’s knowledge is imputed to the receiver and, when the receiver acts, he presumptively possesses the requisite probable cause to search.” However, the court emphasized that this presumption disappears when a motion to suppress is made, and the action is challenged. “At that point, bare reliance on an unsubstantiated hearsay communication from the instigating officer or department will not suffice for probable cause.”

    The court stated that the prosecution must demonstrate that the sender or sending agency itself possessed the requisite probable cause to act. Because the record lacked any proof that the Pennsylvania authorities had probable cause, the resulting search was not sustained by the proof. The court also considered the potential danger to the public safety given the nature of the reported items (weapons) and found that the immediate police response was reasonable. The court stated: “That protection of the public may have been accomplished by less intrusive means does not itself render the search unreasonable.”

    The court distinguished the case from situations where the receiver’s independent observations confirm the sender’s information and emphasized that the circumstances called for an immediate response. The court determined that the failure to seek a warrant did not make the search unreasonable. The court emphasized practical considerations, stating that it “would be unreasonable to expect or to require that the basis for the bulletin, be it the report of an eyewitness to a crime, the report of an informer, or whatever, be broadcast with the bulletin.”

  • People v. Singleteary, 35 N.Y.2d 528 (1974): Warrantless Automobile Searches Based on Probable Cause and Exigent Circumstances

    People v. Singleteary, 35 N.Y.2d 528 (1974)

    A warrantless search of an automobile is permissible when there is probable cause to believe it contains evidence of a crime, and exigent circumstances exist that make obtaining a warrant impractical.

    Summary

    The New York Court of Appeals upheld the warrantless search of an automobile, finding that police had probable cause to believe the vehicle was connected to a recent robbery and beating. The court emphasized the exigent circumstances, noting the need to quickly identify and apprehend the fleeing culprits. Visible evidence in the car, coupled with an anonymous tip and the defendant’s suspicious behavior nearby, established probable cause. The urgency of the situation justified the immediate search without obtaining a warrant. This case underscores the automobile exception to the warrant requirement and the balance between individual rights and public safety.

    Facts

    On April 16, 1969, two elderly people were robbed and beaten in Buffalo, New York. The area had been experiencing a series of similar crimes. Police discovered an unattended car parked near the crime scene. Neighbors reported seeing three men exit the vehicle and walk towards the victims’ residence earlier that morning. Through the car windows, officers observed items commonly used in burglaries: black shoes, an iron bar, a screwdriver, and a flashlight with a slit-masked lens. Three days prior, police received an anonymous tip implicating the defendant and two relatives in similar crimes. The car’s license plates were registered to a vehicle owned by the defendant’s wife. Responding to the alarm, officers encountered the defendant nearby, wearing sneakers and running away from the crime scene; he claimed to be jogging.

    Procedural History

    The defendant was convicted after a jury trial for murder and related offenses. The primary evidence against him was obtained during a warrantless search of the automobile. The defendant appealed, arguing that the search was illegal. The Appellate Division affirmed the conviction, and the defendant then appealed to the New York Court of Appeals.

    Issue(s)

    Whether the warrantless search of the automobile violated the defendant’s Fourth Amendment rights against unreasonable search and seizure, given the presence of probable cause and the existence of exigent circumstances.

    Holding

    Yes, the warrantless search was permissible because probable cause existed to believe the vehicle contained evidence related to the recent robbery, and exigent circumstances made obtaining a warrant impractical.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction, holding that the warrantless search was justified under the automobile exception to the warrant requirement. The court found that probable cause existed based on the items visible inside the car (burglary tools), the neighbor’s testimony, the anonymous tip, and the defendant’s suspicious behavior near the scene. Crucially, the court emphasized the exigent circumstances: the culprits had fled the scene, and swift action was necessary to identify and apprehend them before they escaped. Delaying the search to obtain a warrant would have risked allowing the perpetrators to evade capture, especially given the violent nature of the crime and the possibility that the victims might die (which ultimately occurred). The court cited several cases, including Chambers v. Maroney, to support the proposition that a warrantless search of an automobile is permissible if probable cause exists and obtaining a warrant is impractical. The court distinguished Coolidge v. New Hampshire, noting that the lack of exigency in that case made the warrantless search invalid. The court emphasized that the Constitutions do not forbid all warrantless searches, only unreasonable ones. The court concluded: “For the police to have done less would have been misfeasance.”

  • People v. Weintraub, 35 N.Y.2d 351 (1974): Warrantless Search Incident to Lawful Arrest Extends to Personal Effects

    People v. Weintraub, 35 N.Y.2d 351 (1974)

    A warrantless search incident to a lawful custodial arrest extends to personal effects of the arrestee that are “ready to hand,” regardless of a later judicial determination of the probability of finding weapons or evidence.

    Summary

    Weintraub was arrested for criminal trespass. A contemporaneous search of an attaché case he was carrying revealed stolen checks, airline tickets, and credit cards. The New York Court of Appeals addressed whether the warrantless search of the attaché case was constitutionally permissible as a search incident to a lawful arrest. The Court held that it was, reasoning that the authority to search incident to a lawful custodial arrest extends to items within the arrestee’s immediate control, regardless of the likelihood of finding specific evidence related to the crime of arrest. This case clarifies the scope of searches incident to arrest in New York, particularly distinguishing it from traffic offense cases and aligning it with federal standards.

    Facts

    Police officers found Weintraub in a closed, vandalized parking garage, sitting in a car belonging to Sal Cirella. Weintraub claimed he had Cirella’s permission, but Cirella denied this. Nothing was missing from the car. Because Weintraub could not explain his presence, officers arrested him for criminal trespass. Incident to the arrest, officers searched a closed attaché case Weintraub had been carrying and discovered checks, airline tickets, and credit cards made out to different people.

    Procedural History

    Weintraub was charged with criminally possessing stolen property. He moved to suppress the contents of the attaché case, but the motion was denied, and he pleaded guilty. The Appellate Division reversed, granting the motion to suppress. The Court of Appeals then reviewed the Appellate Division’s order.

    Issue(s)

    Whether the warrantless search of the defendant’s attaché case, conducted incident to a lawful custodial arrest for criminal trespass, was a constitutionally permissible search.

    Holding

    Yes, because the authority to search incident to a lawful custodial arrest extends to personal effects within the arrestee’s immediate control, and this authority does not depend on a later determination of the probability of finding specific evidence.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The Court reasoned that the search was justified as incident to a lawful custodial arrest. The court distinguished this case from prior New York cases, such as People v. Marsh and People v. Adams, which limited searches incident to arrest for traffic offenses. The Court emphasized that those cases were based on the unique nature of traffic offenses and did not apply to a custodial arrest for criminal trespass. Relying on United States v. Robinson, the court stated that the justification for a search incident to a lawful custodial arrest stems from the arrest itself, based on the need to disarm the suspect and to discover or preserve evidence. The Court stated, “The lawful custodial arrest being a constitutionally reasonable intrusion upon the defendant’s privacy, the search incident requires no additional justification. (United States v. Robinson, supra, at p. 235.)” The Court further noted that the search could include personal effects of the arrestee that are “ready to hand”. The Court acknowledged that a less intrusive action—seizing the attaché case without searching it—was possible. However, it found no constitutional requirement for officers to choose the least intrusive method when conducting a search incident to arrest. The Court concluded that the search of the attaché case was a permissible search incident to a lawful custodial arrest, and the evidence found therein was admissible. The court remitted the case to the Appellate Division for a determination of the facts.

  • People v. Brosnan, 32 N.Y.2d 254 (1973): Limits on Warrantless Vehicle Searches Incident to Arrest

    People v. Brosnan, 32 N.Y.2d 254 (1973)

    A warrantless search of an impounded vehicle’s trunk, conducted after the defendant is in custody and the vehicle is secured, is not justified as a search incident to arrest absent exigent circumstances.

    Summary

    The New York Court of Appeals addressed the legality of a warrantless search of a vehicle’s trunk after the defendant’s arrest and the vehicle’s impoundment. The court held that the search was permissible because probable cause existed for the arrest and the subsequent vehicle search. The dissent argued that once the vehicle was impounded and the defendant was in custody, there were no exigent circumstances to justify a warrantless search of the trunk. The dissent emphasized that while probable cause existed, the police should have obtained a search warrant.

    Facts

    The defendant was arrested. Subsequently, law enforcement impounded the defendant’s car and towed it to the Sheriff’s parking lot. While the defendant was in custody, officers conducted a search of the vehicle’s trunk without obtaining a warrant. Evidence discovered in the trunk was later admitted at trial.

    Procedural History

    The trial court admitted the evidence found in the trunk of the defendant’s car. The defendant appealed, arguing that the evidence should have been suppressed as the result of an illegal search. The New York Court of Appeals affirmed the trial court’s decision, holding that the search was justified based on probable cause.

    Issue(s)

    Whether a warrantless search of an impounded vehicle’s trunk, conducted after the defendant is in custody, is permissible under the Fourth Amendment when there are no exigent circumstances?

    Holding

    No, according to the dissenting opinion. The dissent argued that absent exigent circumstances, a warrant should have been obtained prior to searching the trunk, even if probable cause existed. The majority affirmed without a written opinion.

    Court’s Reasoning

    The majority affirmed the lower court’s decision without issuing a written opinion. The dissenting judge argued that the search of the trunk was not justified as a search incident to arrest because the vehicle was already impounded, and the defendant was in custody, negating any risk of the evidence being destroyed or moved. The dissent stated, “There was probable cause for the arrest and sufficient probable cause to obtain a search warrant. However, absent exigent circumstances, I cannot agree that this justified a warrantless search.” The dissent cited People v. Brosnan (32 Y 2d 254, 263), highlighting the importance of warrants in the absence of pressing circumstances. The dissent emphasized that obtaining a warrant would have been the proper course of action, given the lack of urgency and the defendant’s secure custody.